CSC/ECE 517 Summer 2008/wiki2 6 a

Aim

This article aims at highlighting the new areas been explored in the fields of cohesion and coupling and how using agile methodologies help attain highly cohesive classes and to maintain loose coupling between those classes. Following these approaches we can get code which is more readable and maintainable. We encourage reader to visit the references provided at the end of the article to explore more on the research work done in this field.

Introduction

Cohesion and Coupling are concepts often discussed when referring to object-oriented programming. In fact, one of the primary goals of object-oriented programming is “to build highly cohesive classes and to maintain loose coupling between those classes” [1]. In the first section of this article, we provide the basic definition of cohesion, different types of cohesion, how it is measured, advantages and disadvantages of high cohesion and some examples showing implementation of this concept in real life scenarios. Next, we explain the concept of coupling, different types of cohesion, how it is measured, advantages and disadvantages of high coupling and some examples showing implementation of this concept in real life scenarios. In the third section of this article, we highlight we include a section on how using agile approaches maintain cohesion and coupling, and why this is important, it also discusses the importance of quality metrics, and how agile teams help support the same. In next section we discuss the vast research going on in this field and hence we have included a section on new work been done in this field. Lastly, we provide a conclusion to the topics discussed herein along with some recommended further reading and references.

Coupling

Coupling is a qualitative measure of the degree to which the classes, modules or subsystems are connected to one another. It can be defined as the amount of interaction of one object with another object, or one module with another module. For a good software design, it is always advisable to minimize coupling. Strong coupling means that one object or module is dependent on other object or module to perform an operation or task. It simply means that the object or module is strongly coupled with the implementation details of another object or module. With low coupling, a change in one module will not require a change in the implementation of another module. It is important to understand that low coupling does not mean no coupling, rather the goal is to minimize the coupling not eliminate it. A system with no coupling is, by definition, not a system. Low coupling indicates that each object or module performs independent tasks. In general, low coupling can be well explained by Law of demeter. It states that classes within a module or subsystem should have only limited knowledge of classes in other modules or subsystems. In simple terms, 'Law of Demeter' says "Each unit should only talk to its friends; don't talk to strangers".

Types of Coupling

Content coupling

Content coupling occurs when one or more modules access the internals of another module. The following example illustrates content coupling.

 public class Rectangle {
 
   public int Top = 0;
   public int Left = 0;
   public int Width = 0;
   public int Height = 0;
   
   public Rectangle(int top, int left, int width, int height) {
     this.Top = top;
     this.Left = left;
     this.Width = width;
     this.Height = Height;
   }
    
   public int getArea() {
     return this.Width * this.Height;
   }
 }

 public class FloorPlan {
   Rectangle rectangle = null;
 
   public FloorPlan(int width, int height) {
     rectangle = new Rectangle(0, 0, 50, 100);
   }
 
   public void modifyDimensions(int width, int height) {
     rectangle.Width = width;
     rectangle.Height = height;
   }
   
   public int getArea() {
     return rectangle.getArea();
   }
 }

In this example, FloorPlan is able to directly modify the Width and Height fields of the Rectangle object. This coupling creates a dependency from FloorPlan on the internals of the Rectangle object that inhibits maintenance of the Rectangle class. If someone wanted to go back and change the Width and Height fields of Rectangle class to use a different data type they would also have to update the FloorPlan class.

Common coupling

Common coupling occurs when two or more modules modify the same same global variable. The following example illustrates common coupling.

 #include <stdio.h>
 #include <string.h>
 
 #define NUM_FIELDS 3
 
 class EmployeeRecordParser {
   public:
     EmployeeRecordParser(char* strRow, int nFields) : m_nCount(nFields), m_aryFields(0) {
 
       m_aryFields = new char*[m_nCount];
 
       char* strField = strtok(strRow, ",");
   
       for (int ct = 0; ct < m_nCount && strField; ++ct) {
 
          m_aryFields[ct] = new char[strlen(strField) + 1];

          memcpy(m_aryFields[ct], strField, strlen(strField));
 
          m_aryFields[ct][strlen(strField)] = 0;
 
          strField = strtok(NULL, ",");
       }
      }
  	
     ~EmployeeRecordParser() {
        if (m_aryFields)			
          delete [] m_aryFields;
      }
 
      int GetCount() { return m_nCount; }
      char* operator[](int nIndex) { return GetField(nIndex); }
      char* GetField(int nIndex) { return nIndex < m_nCount ? m_aryFields[nIndex] : ""; }
  
    private:
      char**	m_aryFields;
      int	m_nCount;
 };

 void ParseRecords(char* strFile) {
   int nRecords = 0;
   char* strRow = strtok(strFile, "\n");
 
   while (strRow) {		
 
     EmployeeRecordParser record(strRow, NUM_FIELDS);
 
     printf("\nEmployee Record %d\n------------------------\n", ++nRecords);
 
     for (int i = 0; i < record.GetCount(); ++i)  {
       printf("Field %d: %s\n", i, record[i]);
     }
 
     strRow = strtok(NULL, "\n");
   }
 }
 
 int main() {
   char str[] = "Tom,Frank,919-777-2333\nMikel,Dundlin,919-234-5512\nRobert,Skoglund,919-232-2904";
 
   ParseRecords(str);
  
   return 0;
 }

In the C++ example above, both the ParseRecords method and the EmployeeRecordParser class make use of the globally accessible strtok function. Internally, strtok uses a static variable to track the position of the current string being tokenized, which is also used to determine when the whole string has been parsed. In this particular example, the coupling on this common function has a side effect that causes a bug that prevents all the records from being correctly parsed.

Control coupling

Control coupling occurs when one module controls the execution flow of another module. The following example [2] illustrates control coupling.

 enum InfoType { id, name, balance }
 
 public class CustomerInfo {
   public Object getCustomerInfo(InfoType type) {
     Object returnVal = null;
     switch (infoType) {
       case InfoType.id:                    
         returnVal = getCustomerId();
         break;
 
       case InfoType.name:
         returnVal = getCustomerName();
         break;
 
       case InfoType.balance:
         returnVal = getCustomerBalance();
         break;
     }
     
     return returnVal;      
   }
 
   // ...
 }

 public class Client {
   private customerInfo = new CustomerInfo();
 
   public void execute() {
     int id = (int)customerInfo.getCustomerInfo(InfoType.id);
     // ...
   }
 }

In this example, the Client class controls the flow of execution within the CustomerInfo module. This form of coupling requires modules calling CustomerInfo to know about the flow of execution within its class.

Stamp coupling

Stamp coupling occurs when two or more modules access or modify the same data of a shared object. The following example illustrates stamp coupling.

 public class Customer {
   private int id = 0;
   private String name = "";
   private float balance = 0.0f;
 
   public int getId() { return id; }
 
   public void setId(int _id) { id = _id; }
 
   public String getName() { return name; }
 
   public void setName(String _name) { name = _name; }
 
   public float getBalance() { return balance; }
 
   public void setBalance(float _balance) { balance = _balance; }
 }

 public class CustomerInfo() {
   public void save(Customer customer) {
     int id = customer.getId();
     String name = gustomer.getName();
     // ...
   }
 }

 public class Client {
   private customerInfo = new CustomerInfo();
 
   public void execute() {
     Customer customer = new Customer();
 
     customer.setId(5);
     customer.setName("Example");
     customer.setBalance(100f);
     
     customerInfo.save(customer);
   }
 }

In this example, the Client and CustomerInfo classes share the common Customer class. This is a desired form of coupling.

Data coupling

Data coupling occurs when one module passes primitive type or simple data structure to another module as an argument. The following example illustrates data coupling.

 public class CustomerInfo
 {
   public float getCustomerBalance(int customerId)
   {
     // implementation details
   }
 }
   
 public class Client
 {
   private customerInfo = new CustomerInfo();
   
   public void execute(int customerId)
   {
       float balance = customerInfo.getCustomerBalance(customerId);
 
       // ...    
   }
 }

In this example, Client and CustomerInfo interact using only primitive types of data. This is a desired form of coupling.

Measuring Coupling

While it is impossible to avoid some level of coupling within systems, the goal is to reduce coupling as much as possible. Below are three metrics that can be used to determine the level of coupling within a system.

Coupling Between Objects (CBO)

 CBO = sum(t)
 
 t = Total number of types that are referenced by a particular class, not including any possible super-classes, 
 primitive types or common framework classes.

Lower CBO values indicate lower coupling.

Data Abstraction Coupling (DAC)

 DAC = sum(a)
 
 a = Total number of types that are used for attribute declarations, not including primitive types, common framework classes, 
 or types that are inherited from any possible super-classes.

Lower DC values indicate lower coupling.

Method Invocation Coupling (MIC)

 MIC = nMIC / (N – 1)
 
 N = Total number of classes defined within the project.
 nMIC = Total number of classes that receive a message from the target class.

Lower MIC values indicate lower coupling.

Demeter's Law

Demeter's Law is a design principle that when applied to object-oriented programming means that object A can reference object B but object A cannot use object B to reference object C. Complying with this principle prevents object A from knowing that object B uses object C thereby reducing coupling. If object A needs to access a function of object C then it is up to object B to expose an operation encapsulating the reference to object C. The following example [3] illustrates how this could be done.

 public float calculateTotal(Order order) {
    return order.getProducts().getTotalCost();
 }

In the example object the object which implements calculateTotal() is calling getTotalCost on a Products object which is exposed through order. An alternative to this approach would be for the order object to expose this functionality as suggested by the following example.

 public float calculateTotal(Order order) {
   return order.getTotalCost()
 }
 
 public class Order {
   // ...
 
   public float getTotalCost() {
     return products.getTotalCost();
   }
   
   // ...
 }

Advantages of high coupling

• Coupling allows interaction between different modules so more complicated tasks can be done.
• Coupling to minimum extent helps system's scope to extend.

Disadvantages of high coupling

• Decreases the flexibility of the application software. Developers / maintenance programmers need to understand potentially the whole system to be able to safely modify a single component.
• Object interaction complexity associated with coupling can lead to increased error generation during development.
• Decreases the scalability of the application software. Changing requirements in one part of software will potentially require wide ranging changes in the entire application.
• Decreases the maintainability of the application software. More thought need to go into choices at the beginning of the lifetime of a software system in order to attempt to predict the long term requirements of the system because changes are more expensive.
• Testability is likely to degrade with a more highly coupled system of objects.

Agile Methodology

"Agile software development is a group of software development methods based on iterative and incremental development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organizing, cross-functional teams". It promotes adaptive planning, evolutionary development and delivery, a time-boxed iterative approach, and encourages rapid and flexible response to change. It is a conceptual framework that promotes foreseen interactions throughout the development cycle. [4]

How using agile approaches maintain cohesion and coupling ?

In Agile Methods refactoring is an integral part of the development process; it is adopted to improve continuously the structure and understandability of source code during development. In the agile community it is widely accepted that refactoring contributes to confine the complexity of source code and has a positive impact on the understandability and maintainability of a software system: frequently refactored code is believed to be easier to understand, correct and adjust to new requirements.

Refactoring guidelines for enhancing cohesion and coupling metrics and obtain promising results by applying them on an open source project. The last three advantages of re-factoring refer to software quality attributes. We have previously mentioned some studies that analyze the impact of code restructuring induced by re-factoring on internal product metrics, which are typically used to measure quality attributes, such as complexity, coupling and cohesion. Such early results are promising, still there is a need for (a) additional empirical validation to better understand and generalize the findings, and (b) a clear linkage to external quality attributes, such as number of defects.

For this goal we first study how the selected productivity and quality measures evolve during the development of the project. Software is naturally subjected to continuing change, increasing size and complexity and therefore declining maintainability. In particular, in the one-way traditional development process, internal code measures tend to show a continuous increase in complexity and coupling and a decrease in cohesion as new features are added to a software system. This natural process of code corrosion is even more manifest as time goes by . More complex and intertwined code is more difficult to manage and maintain; therefore, we expect that also development productivity will show a decreasing trend over time. In contrast, in XP-like processes, thanks to its agile practices (in particular constant refactoring, unit testing, frequent releases), the complexity of the code and the effort for adding new functionalities is claimed to remain about constant or to grow very slowly [3]. Unfortunately, due to high costs of industrial software development we are not able to run a formal experiment with an industrial partner where we could analyze two similar projects, one developed using XP practices and one without, and compare directly the evolution of respective quality and productivity metrics. We have to content ourselves with a simpler approach: We focus only on one XP practice, namely refactoring, and compare changes of productivity before and after explicit refactorings and use such comparison as criteria for assessing the impact of refactoring on it. As regards quality and maintainability, we determine the changes of several design metrics after an explicit refactoring has been applied and compare changes with the average daily changes per iteration. If they are significantly different (improved) we then conclude that refactoring has a positive effect on code quality and, as a consequence, on software maintainability.

Software maintainability is related both to software quality (it is considered as a quality factor) and cost, as good maintainability of software reduces gnificantly maintainance effort [11]. An XP project is constantly in the state of maintainance [3], therefore, besides quality measures also evolution of development productivity is a good indicator for its maintainability. The CK metrics include measures for complexity (WMC) and coupling (CBO) of object-oriented systems: Both of them are related to software maintainability as an increase of software complexity and coupling deteriorates its understandability [18]. Findings of prior studies claim that refactoring improves some low-level quality metrics like coupling and cohesion measures [7]. In this research we look at the temporal evolution of the CBO, WMC, RFC, and LCOM metrics and how it is related to refactoring. A visual inspection of the evolution of these metrics (Figure 3) evidences that their changes, from one iteration to the next, tend to decrease starting from the second iteration (1st explicit refactoring) for the CBO and RFC metrics, and from the third for the LCOM and WMC metrics. This is a first indication that refactoring could limit the overall decrease of cohesion and increase of coupling and complexity metrics that we expect to occur during software development.

This work contributes to a better understanding of the effects of refactoring both on code quality – in particular on software maintainability - and development productivity in a close-to industrial, agile development environment. It provides new empirical, industrially based evidence that refactoring rather increases than decreases development productivity and improves quality factors, as measured using common internal quality attributes – reduces code complexity and coupling; increases cohesion. The implications on defects are not discussed, as such data are not available. Moreover, we do not contribute in exploring the linkage of refactoring to other external quality attributes. Clearly, this question has to be addressed in a future study.