CSC/ECE 517 Fall 2011/ch1 1c cm

Introduction

Previous 517 classes have written about closures as implemented in several o-o languages, but this topic asks you to identify practical advantages of using closures over using methods. Give examples of programming problems that can be solved more concisely, more extensibly, or more elegantly using closures than using methods. Make sure the examples are organized into a coherent progression.

high-level overview, who we are trying to target

Closures vs. Methods

introduction of the battle of functional versus object oriented history of the closures with scheme and future languages history of OO methods with C++ and other languages

Summary Table

graphical breakdown of the two and the features we think are important for each

Definitions

Closures

A closure is a block of executable code together with a reference to the local variables from the environment in which it was created. The local variables are captured by the closure, and their lifetime is extended throughout the lifetime of the closure. Closures can be created by defining a function within the body of another function as the following example illustrates. Note that the scope of the parameter n is limited to the inside of the addGen function. However, because addGen returns a closure, that closure has access to n whenever it is evoked.

An example of a function returning a closure in JavaScript.

function addGen(n) {
    return function (x) {
        return x + n;
    };
}

var add5 = addGen(5);
var add10 = addGen(10);

alert(add5(6));     // 11
alert(add10(6));    // 16

Here is the same example in C#.

public Func<int, int> addGen(int n)
{
    return x => x + n;
}

var add5 = addGen(5);
var add10 = addGen(10);

Console.WriteLine(add5(6));    // 11
Console.WriteLine(add10(6));   // 16

And again in Ruby

def addGen(n)
    Proc.new { |x| x + n }
end

add5 = addGen(5)
add10 = addGen(10)

puts add5(6)      # 11
puts add10(6)     # 16

First-class functions

Closures are closely related to first-class functions, because typically a closure is a first-class function. A first-class function is a function that can appear anywhere in a program that other first-class values (such as a number or a string) can appear. Namely, a first-class function can be assigned to a variable, passed as an argument to another function, and returned as the return value from a function. Closures are first-class functions that capture the local variables (or free variables) from the site of their definition.

Execution-time environment contains free variables

closures capture variables referenced at the time they are created and the lifetime of those captured variables is extended to at least as long as the lifetime of the closure

function multipleClosures() {
    var i = 0;
    return [
        function () { return ++i; },
        function () { return --i; }
    ];
}

var closures = multipleClosures();

alert(closures[0]());    // 1
alert(closures[0]());    // 2
alert(closures[1]());    // 1

public Func<int>[] multipleClosures()
{
    int i = 0;
    return new Func<int>[] { () => ++i, () => --i };
}

var closures = multipleClosures();

Console.WriteLine(closures[0]());    // 1
Console.WriteLine(closures[0]());    // 2
Console.WriteLine(closures[1]());    // 1

def multipleClosures
i = 0
[ Proc.new { i = i + 1 }, Proc.new { i = i - 1 } ]
end

closures = multipleClosures

puts closures[0].call    # 1
puts closures[0].call    # 2
puts closures[1].call    # 1

Methods

Object-oriented programming dates back to at least the middle 1960's. One of the fundamental principals of objects is the notion of encapsulation. One of the earliest descriptions of the methodology, dates back to a 1966 paper describing the SIMULA, a language designed to ease simulation of large systems. The SIMULA language used classes to encapsulate coupled procedures and data into an object, “an object is a self-contained program (block instance) having its own local data and actions defined by a 'class declaration'” [pg 6, Simula]. This 50 year-old concept of fields and procedures is central to the design of today's object-oriented languages such as Smalltalk, Java and C++. The method will be defined using the following criteria:

• An object as first-class data which allows binding of

1. finite set of static or instance data (commonly referred to as fields) created by the programmer which hold the state of the object
2. procedures or actions modifying the data to change the state of the object
3. an ability to access methods across objects (data sharing)

Instance or static class functions

Our definition of a method requires functions which can be bound to a first-class object. All object-oriented languages provide this construct. We can create objects and pass those objects around to be executed by other objects or in the global environment.

Execution-time environment contains instance or static variables

The second point of the method definition is that the we can bind static or instance data to our first-class data object. All object-oriented language also provide this construct.

Object-oriented vs. Functional Programming - Benefits of Closures

“Object orientation enhances reusability because it promotes reuse of code at the class level rather than at the level of the individual subroutine.” [pg 66, Fun]

Where the benefits of methods have been demonstrated in object-oriented systems, closures are finding their way into languages which haven't had them in the past, like C++ and Java. The C++ proposal for extending the language lists some of the benefits of supporting closures in the traditionally OO language, including notational simplicity, code sharing of common algorithms, and generality [Lamba].

Callbacks

Callbacks are often cited as the most desirable application of Closures. There are several forms of callbacks that can demostrate this capability

• • generic algorithms
  • behavior injection
  • parallel programming (MapReduce)

Generic Algorithms

The C++ proposal makes light of the fact that closures provide the ability to inject code into generic routines without the programmer having to provide adapters. "The lack of a syntactically light-weight way to define simple function objects is a hindrance to the effective use of several generic algorithms in the Standard Library [C++]

The classic for_each template algorithm in C++ is called using the following syntax:

template <class InputIterator, class OutputIterator, class UnaryFunction>
OutputIterator transform(InputIterator first, InputIterator last,
                         OutputIterator result, UnaryFunction op);
{
   for ( ; first != last; ++first, ++result ) *result = op(*first);
   return result;
}

Because C++ does not have Closures, the fourth parameter requires either a named function or an object which supports "operator ()".

// static function
int multiply_2(int x) 
{
   return x * 2;
}
class multiply_it
{
   int multiplier;
   multiple_it(int x) : multiplier(x) {}
   int operator()(int x) const { return x * multiplier }
}

std::vect test;
std::vect output;

for_each( test.begin(), test.end(), output.begin(), multiply )
for_each( test.begin(), test.end(), output.begin(), multiply_it(2) )

If we use the static function and we want to change the multiply function, we either have to create a new named function or create a global variable and make sure the global variable is set correctly before the function is executed. Using the function object, we have can easily change the multiplier, but we were forced to create and manage a new class specifically for the integer multiply.

Consider the same code using Ruby and a Closure.

Behavior Injection

Behavior injection is used heavily in Javascript.

Map Reduce - Parallelism

Google popularized the technique of Map Reduction with its search algorithm that simultaneously runs the same search algorithm on multiple threads and combines the results to produce a single answer. Within a programming environment Closures allow parallelized reduction.