Chapter 1: Nick Nicholls, Albert Chu: Difference between revisions

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Revision as of 01:29, 14 February 2012

Transistor Count

According to the text, since 1971 the number of transistors on a chip has increased from 2,300 to 167 million in 2006. By 2011, the transistor count had further increased to 2.6 billion, a 1,130,434x increase from 1971. The clock frequency has also continued to rise, if a bit slower since 2006. At the time, it was around 2.4GHz, a 3k multiple of the speed in 1971 of 750KHz. Now the high end clock speed of a processor is in the 3.3GHz range.

Evolution of Intel Processors

Table 1.1: Evolution of Intel Processors
From Procs Specifications New Features
2000 Pentium IV 1.4-3GHz, 55M transistors hyper-pipelining, SMT
2006 Xeon 64-bit, 2GHz, 167M transistors, 4MB L2 cache on chip Dual core, virtualization support
2007 Core 2 Allendale 1.8-2.6 GHz, 167M transistors, 2MB L2 cache 2 CPUs on one die, Trusted Execution Technology
2008 Xeon 2.5-2.83 GHz, 820M transistors, 6MB L3 cache
2009 Core i7 Lynnfield 2.66-2.93 GHz, 774M transistors, 8MB L3 cache 2-channel DDR3
2010 Core i7 Gulftown 3.2 GHz, 1.17B transistors One of the new 32 nm processors
2011 Core i7 Sandy Bridge E 3.2-3.3 GHz, 32 KB L1 cache per core, 256 KB L2 cache, 20 MB L3 cache, 2.27B transistors Up to 8 cores

Cores

The amount of cores on a chip has continued to increase since 2006. By 2011, Intel and IBM were producing 8-core processors. For servers, AMD was producing up to 16-core processors.

Cluster Computers

The '90s saw a rise of cluster computers, or distributed super computers. This movement has continued to the present, and in 2011 the fastest super computer was Japan's K Computer, a cluster computer.

The K computer contains 88,128 nodes and can perform 10.51 petaflops, making it 4 times as fast as the previous record holder. It does this at a computing efficiency of 93%.

One of the newer innovations in cluster computers is high-availability. These types of clusters operate with redundant nodes to minimize downtime when components fail. Such a system uses automated load-balancing algorithms to route traffic when a node fails.

Chip Multi-Processors

As the diminishing returns and power inefficiencies of ILP progressed, manufacturers began to turn towards chip multi-processors (i.e. multicore architectures).

Table 1.2: Examples of current multicore processors
Aspects Intel Sandy Bridge AMD Valencia IBM POWER7
# Cores 4 8 8
Clock Freq. 3.5GHz 3.3GHz 3.55GHz
Clock Type OOO Superscalar OOO Superscalar
Caches 8MB L3 8MB L3 4MB L3 cache per core
Chip Power 95 Watts 95 Watts 650 Watts for the whole system

Sources

  1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_count
  2. http://ark.intel.com/products/52220/Intel-Core-i3-2310M-Processor-%283M-Cache-2_10-GHz%29
  3. http://www.tomshardware.com/news/intel-ivy-bridge-22nm-cpu-3d-transistor,14093.html
  4. http://www.anandtech.com/show/5091/intel-core-i7-3960x-sandy-bridge-e-review-keeping-the-high-end-alive
  5. http://www.chiplist.com/Intel_Core_2_Duo_E4xxx_series_processor_Allendale/tree3f-subsection--2249-/
  6. http://www.pcper.com/reviews/Processors/Intel-Lynnfield-Core-i7-870-and-Core-i5-750-Processor-Review
  7. http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/quickreffam.htm#Xeon
  8. http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/core-i7-980x-gulftown,2573-2.html
  9. http://www.fujitsu.com/global/news/pr/archives/month/2011/20111102-02.html
  10. http://ark.intel.com/products/61275
  11. http://www.anandtech.com/show/5096/amd-releases-opteron-4200-valencia-and-6200-interlagos-series