CSC/ECE 506 Spring 2010/ch1 lm: Difference between revisions

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"Look through the www.top500.org site, and any other relevant material you can find, and write about supercomputer trends since the beginning of top500.org. Specifically, look at how the architectures, operating systems, and programming models have changed. What models were dominant, say, for each generation, or five-year interval? What technological trends caused the changes? Please write an integrated description. You can link to other Web sites, but your description should be self-contained."
A '''supercomputer''' is a computer that is most advanted computer of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation. Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and were designed primarily at Control Data Corporation (CDC), and led the market into the 1970s.


A '''supercomputer''' is a [[computer]] that is at the frontline of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation. Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and were designed primarily by [[Seymour Cray]] at [[Control Data Corporation]] (CDC), and led the market into the 1970s until Cray left to form his own company, [[Cray Research]].
Cray then took over the supercomputer market with his new designs, holding the top spot in supercomputing for five years (1985–1990). In the 1980s a large number of smaller competitors entered the market, in parallel to the creation of the minicomputer market a decade earlier, but many of these disappeared in the mid-1990s "supercomputer market crash."
He then took over the supercomputer market with his new designs, holding the top spot in supercomputing for five years (1985–1990). In the 1980s a large number of smaller competitors entered the market, in parallel to the creation of the [[minicomputer]] market a decade earlier, but many of these disappeared in the mid-1990s "supercomputer market crash".


Today, supercomputers are typically one-of-a-kind custom designs produced by "traditional" companies such as [[Cray]], [[IBM]] and [[Hewlett-Packard]], who had purchased many of the 1980s companies to gain their experience. {{As of|2009|7}}, the Cray Jaguar is the fastest supercomputer in the [[world]].
Today, supercomputers are typically one-of-a-kind custom designs produced by "traditional" companies such as Cray, IBM, and Hewlett-Packard, who purchased many of the 1980s companies to gain their experience. As of 7/2009, the Cray Jaguar is the fastest supercomputer in the world.
 
The term ''supercomputer'' itself is rather fluid, and today's supercomputer tends to become tomorrow's ordinary [[computer]]. CDC's early machines were simply very fast [[scalar processor]]s, some ten times the speed of the fastest machines offered by other companies. In the 1970s most supercomputers were dedicated to running a [[vector processor]], and many of the newer players developed their own such processors at a lower price to enter the market. The early and mid-1980s saw machines with a modest number of vector processors working in parallel to become the standard. Typical numbers of processors were in the range of four to sixteen. In the later 1980s and 1990s, attention turned from vector processors to massive [[parallel computing|parallel processing]] systems with thousands of "ordinary" [[central processing unit|CPU]]s, some being [[commercial off-the-shelf|off the shelf unit]]s and others being custom designs. Today, parallel designs are based on "off the shelf" server-class [[microprocessors]], such as the [[PowerPC]], [[Opteron]], or [[Xeon]], and most modern supercomputers are now highly-tuned [[computer cluster]]s using commodity processors combined with custom interconnects.
 
Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks such as problems involving [[quantum physics]], [[weather forecasting]], climate research, [[computational chemistry|molecular modeling]] (computing the structures and properties of chemical compounds, biological [[macromolecules]], polymers, and crystals), physical simulations (such as simulation of airplanes in [[wind tunnel]]s, simulation of the detonation of [[nuclear weapons]], and research into [[nuclear fusion]]).
A particular class of problems, known as [[Grand Challenge problem]]s, are problems whose full solution requires semi-infinite computing resources.
 
Relevant here is the distinction between capability computing and capacity computing, as defined by Graham et al. '''Capability computing''' is typically thought of as using the maximum computing power to solve a large problem in the shortest amount of time. Often a capability system is able to solve a problem of a size or complexity that no other computer can. '''Capacity computing''' in contrast is typically thought of as using efficient cost-effective computing power to solve somewhat large problems or many small problems or to prepare for a run on a capability system.


Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks such as problems involving quantum physics, weather forecasting, climate research, computational chemistry|molecular modeling (computing the structures and properties of chemical compounds, biological macromolecules, polymers, and crystals), physical simulations (such as simulation of airplanes in wind tunnels, simulation of the detonation of nuclear weapons, and research into nuclear fusion).


==Timeline of supercomputers==
==Timeline of supercomputers==
This is a list of the record-holders for fastest general-purpose supercomputer in the world, and the year each one set the record.
This is a list of the record-holders for fastest general-purpose supercomputer in the world, and the year each one set the record.
For entries prior to 1993, this list refers to various sources [http://www.computerhistory.org/VirtualVisibleStorage/artifact_main.php?tax_id=03.04.01.00#4 CDC timeline at Computer History Museum]. From 1993 to present, the list reflects the Top500 listing [http://www.top500.org/sublist Directory page for Top500 lists. Result for each list since June 1993], and the "Peak speed" is given as the "Rmax" rating.
Here we just list entries after 1993. The list reflects the Top500 listing [http://www.top500.org/sublist Directory page for Top500 lists. Result for each list since June 1993], and the "Peak speed" is given as the "Rmax" rating.


{| class="wikitable" border = "1"
{| class="wikitable" border = "1"
! Year !! Supercomputer !! FLOPS|Peak speed<br>(Rmax) !! Location
! Year !! Supercomputer !! FLOPS|Peak speed<br>(Rmax) !! Location
|-
|1938
|Zuse Z1 (computer)|Z1
|align=right|1&nbsp;OPS
|Konrad Zuse, Berlin, Germany
|-
|1941
|Zuse Z3 (computer)|Z3
|align=right|20&nbsp;OPS
|Konrad Zuse, Berlin, Germany
|-
|1943
|Colossus_computer|Colossus 1
|align=right|5&nbsp;kOPS
|Post_Office_Research_Station|Post Office Research Station, Bletchley_Park|Bletchley Park, UK
|-
|1944
|Colossus_computer|Colossus 2 (Single Processor)
|align=right|25&nbsp;kOPS
|Post_Office_Research_Station|Post Office Research Station, Bletchley_Park|Bletchley Park, UK
|-
|1946
|Colossus_computer|Colossus 2 (Parallel Processor)
|align=right|50&nbsp;kOPS
|Post_Office_Research_Station|Post Office Research Station, Bletchley_Park|Bletchley Park, UK
|-
|1946<br />&nbsp;
|University of Pennsylvania|UPenn ENIAC<br>(before 1948+ modifications) <!-- serial, after 1948 the peak speed was about 833 OPS -->
|align=right|5 kOPS
|United States Department of War|Department of War<br>Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, United States|USA
|-
|1954
|IBM IBM NORC|NORC
|align=right|67&nbsp;kOPS
|United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense<br>Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division|U.S. Naval Proving Ground, Dahlgren, Virginia|Dahlgren, Virginia, United States|USA
|-
|1956
|Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT TX-0
|align=right|83&nbsp;kOPS
|Massachusetts Institute of Technology|Massachusetts Inst. of Technology, Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington, Massachusetts, United States|USA
|-
|1958
|IBM AN/FSQ-7
|align=right|400&nbsp;kOPS
|25 United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force sites across the continental United States|continental USA and 1 site in Canada (52 computers)
|-
|1960
|UNIVAC UNIVAC LARC|LARC
|align=right|250&nbsp;kFLOPS <!-- Only single processor was built, dual processor would have been 500 kFLOPS -->
|United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)<br>Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, United States|USA
|-
|1961
|IBM 7030|IBM 7030 "Stretch"
|align=right|1.2&nbsp;MFLOPS
|Los Alamos National Laboratory|AEC-Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico, United States|USA
|-
|1964
|CDC 6600
|align=right|3&nbsp;MFLOPS
|rowspan="3" |Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory|AEC-Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, United States|USA
|-
|1969
|CDC 7600
|align=right|36&nbsp;MFLOPS
|-
|1974
|CDC STAR-100
|align=right|100&nbsp;MFLOPS
|-
|1975
|Burroughs Corporation|Burroughs ILLIAC IV
|align=right|150&nbsp;MFLOPS
|NASA Ames Research Center, California, United States|USA
|-
|1976
|Cray-1
|align=right|250&nbsp;MFLOPS
|Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA)<br>Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico, United States|USA (80+ sold worldwide)
|-
|1981
|CDC Cyber|CDC Cyber 205
|align=right|400&nbsp;MFLOPS
|(~40 systems worldwide)
|-
|1983
|Cray X-MP/4
|align=right|941&nbsp;MFLOPS
|United States Department of Energy|U.S. Department of Energy (DoE)<br>Los Alamos National Laboratory; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; Battelle Memorial Institute|Battelle; Boeing
|-
|1984
|M-13 (computer)|M-13
|align=right|2.4&nbsp;GFLOPS
|Scientific Research Institute of Computer Complexes, Moscow, Soviet Union|USSR
|-
|1985
|Cray-2/8
|align=right|3.9&nbsp;GFLOPS
|Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory|DoE-Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, United States|USA
|-
|1989
|ETA10-G/8
|align=right|10.3&nbsp;GFLOPS
|Florida State University, Florida, United States|USA
|-
|1990
|NEC Corporation|NEC SX-3/44R
|align=right|23.2&nbsp;GFLOPS
|NEC Corporation|NEC Fuchu Plant, Fuchū,_Tokyo, Japan
|-
|-
|rowspan="3"|1993
|rowspan="3"|1993
Line 190: Line 75:
|-
|-
|rowspan="2" |2008
|rowspan="2" |2008
|rowspan="2" |IBM IBM Roadrunner|Roadrunner
|rowspan="2" |IBM |Roadrunner
|align=right|1.026&nbsp;PFLOPS
|align=right|1.026&nbsp;PFLOPS
|rowspan="2" |Los Alamos National Laboratory|DoE-Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico, United States|USA
|rowspan="2" |Los Alamos National Laboratory|DoE-Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico, United States|USA
Line 206: Line 91:


----
----
==Architecture==
Over the years, we see the changes in supercomputer architecture. Various  architectures were developed and abandoned, as computer technology progressed.
In the early '90s, single processors were still common in the supercomputer arena. However, two other architectures played more important roles. One was Massive Parallel Processing (MPP), which is a computer system with many independent arithmetic units or entire microprocessors, that run in parallel. The other is Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP), a good representative of the earliest styles of multiprocessor machine architectures. The existence of these two architectures met two of the supercomputer's key needs: parallelism and high performance.
As time passed by, more units were available. In the early 2000s, constellation computing was widely used, and MPP reached its peak percentage.
With the rise of cluster computing, the supercomputer world was transformed. In 2009, cluster computing accounted for 83.4% of the architectures in the Top 500. A cluster computer is a group of linked computers, working together closely so that in many respects they form a single computer. Compared to a single computer, clusters are deployed to improve performance and/or availability, while being more cost-effective than single computers of comparable speed or availability. Cluster computers offer a high-performance computing alternative over SMP and massively parallel computing systems. Using redundancy, cluster architectures also aim to provide reliability.
From the analysis above, we can see that supercomputers are highly related to technological change, and actively motivated by it.
[[Image:architecture_system.jpg]] [[Image:architecture_performance.jpg]]


==Processors==
==Processors==
Line 211: Line 110:
=== Processor Architecture ===
=== Processor Architecture ===


For building Super computers, the trend that seems to emerge is that most new systems look as minor variations on the same theme: clusters of RISC-based Symmetric Multi-Processing (SMP) nodes which in turn are connected by a fast network. Consider this as a natural architectural evolution. The availability of relatively low-cost (RISC) processors and network products to connect these processors together with standardised communication software has stimulated the building of home-brew clusters computers as an alternative to complete systems offered by vendors.


Looking at the following two figures from TOP500 website, we could see an obvious trend of scalar processor architecture over vector architecture.  
Looking at the following two figures from the TOP500 Web site, we can see an obvious trend toward scalar processor architecture encroaching on vector architecture. Processor architecture has moved from basic pipeline and RISC models, to vector processors, and then to superscalar processors.  


[[Image:Processor_Architecture.jpg]][[Image:Performance_Archi_Share.jpg]]
[[Image:Processor_Architecture.jpg]] [[Image:Performance_Archi_Share.jpg]]


=== Processor Family ===
=== Processor Family ===
It is quite clear that supercomputers are evolving with the major changes in the commercial market. Time has seen processor upgrades as Intel/AMD release their new products. In 11/2009, Intel EM64T, AMD X86_64 and Power comprise 98% of all the processors used in the top 500 supercomputers.
[[Image:Processor_Family.jpg]]


=== Number of Processors ===
<br>Here are four charts comparing the evolution from 1993 to 2009. First are 1993 and 1999 distributions:<br>
[[Image:1993_PF.jpg]][[Image:1999_PF.jpg]]
<br>Then come 2005 and 2009:<br>
[[Image:2005_PF.jpg]][[Image:2009_PF.jpg]]<br>
From these four charts, you can see that processor family depends heavily on the vendors and shipping in that time period. Processor families of supercomputers reflect technological progress in the past twenty years. Newly built supercomputers will always adopt new technology.  As we have said before, supercomputers are a fluid field, and today's "supercomputer" turns out to be tomorrow's "minicomputer".
 
=== Number of processors ===
Through advances in Moore's Law, the frequency and number of processors grows exponentially, as both multiprocessing and cluster computing becomes cost-effective.  Supercomputer trends are likely to yield a collection of computers with multiprocessing that are highly interconnected via a high-speed network or switching fabric.  There will be a great increase in the number of processors.


==Operating Systems==
==Operating Systems==
Line 225: Line 133:
=== Operating Systems Family ===
=== Operating Systems Family ===


Supercomputer use various of operating systems. The operating system of one specific supercomputer depends on the vendor of it. Until the early-to-mid-1980s, supercomputers usually sacrificed instruction set compatibility and code portability for performance (processing and memory access speed). For the most part, supercomputers to this time (unlike high-end mainframes) had vastly different operating systems. The Cray-1 alone had at least six different proprietary OSs largely unknown to the general computing community. In similar manner, different and incompatible vectorizing and parallelizing compilers for Fortran existed. This trend would have continued with the ETA-10 were it not for the initial instruction set compatibility between the Cray-1 and the Cray X-MP, and the adoption of computer system's such as Cray's Unicos, or Linux.  
Supercomputer use various of operating systems. The operating system of s specific supercomputer depends on its vendor. Until the early-to-mid-1980s, supercomputers usually sacrificed instruction-set compatibility and code portability for performance (processing and memory access speed). For the most part, supercomputers at this time (unlike high-end mainframes) had vastly different operating systems. The Cray-1 alone had at least six different proprietary OSs largely unknown to the general computing community. In a similar manner, there existed different and incompatible vectorizing and parallelizing compilers for Fortran. This trend would have continued with the ETA-10 were it not for the initial instruction set compatibility between the Cray-1 and the Cray X-MP, and the adoption of computer systems such as Cray's Unicos, or Linux.  


From the statistics of top500, before the 21st century almost all the OS fall into "Unix" family, while after year 2000 more and more Linux branches are adopted into supercomputers. In the 2009/11 list, 446 out of 500 supercomputers at the top were using their own distribution of Linux. When we list the OS for each of the top 20 supercomputers, the result for Linux is very impressive:<br><b>19 of the top 20 supercomputers in the world are running some form of Linux.</b><br>
From the Top 500 statistics, before the 21st century almost all the OSs fell into the Unix family, while after year 2000 more and more Linux versions were adopted for supercomputers. In the 2009/11 list, 446 out of 500 supercomputers at the top were using their own distribution of Linux. When we list the OS for each of the top 20 supercomputers, the result for Linux is very impressive:<br><b>18 of the top 20 supercomputers in the world are running some form of Linux.</b><br>
And if you just look at the top 10, ALL of them use Linux. Looking at the list, it becomes clear that prominent supercomputer vendors such as Cray, IBM and SGI have wholeheartedly embraced Linux. In a few cases Linux coexists with a lightweight kernel running on the compute nodes (the part of the supercomputer that performs the actual calculations), but often even these lightweight kernels are based on Linux. Cray, for example, has a modified version of Linux they call CNL (Compute Node Linux).
And if you just look at the top 10, **all** of them use Linux. Looking at the list, it becomes clear that prominent supercomputer vendors such as Cray, IBM and SGI have wholeheartedly embraced Linux. In a few cases Linux coexists with a lightweight kernel running on the compute nodes (the part of the supercomputer that performs the actual calculations), but often even these lightweight kernels are based on Linux. Cray, for example, has a modified version of Linux they call CNL (Compute Node Linux).


====IBM AIX====
AIX (Advanced Interactive eXecutive) is the name given to a series of proprietary operating systems sold by IBM for several of its computer system platforms, based on UNIX System V with 4.3BSD-compatible command and programming interface extensions.
AIX runs on 32-bit or 64-bit IBM POWER or PowerPC CPUs (depending on version) and can address up to 32 terabytes (TB) of random access memory. The JFS2 file system—first introduced by IBM as part of AIX—allows computer files and partitions over 4 petabytes in size.


[[Image:os_system.jpg]] [[Image:os_performance.jpg]]
====Linux Family====
''SuSE Linux Enterprise Server Family''<br>
SLES has been developed based on SUSE Linux. It was first released on 31 October 2000 as a version for IBM S/390 mainframe machines. In December 2000, the first enterprise client (Telia) was made public. In April 2001, the first SLES for x86 was released. SLES version 9 was released in August 2004; SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 10 was released in July 2006; SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 11 was released on March 24, 2009. All of them are supported by the major hardware vendors—IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Dell, SGI, Lenovo, and Fujitsu Siemens Computers.<br>
''Redhat Enterprise/CentOS''<br>
Redhat Enterprise along with CentOS are adopted in some vendors' platform. Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) is a Linux distribution produced by Red Hat and targeted toward the commercial market, including mainframes. CentOS is a community-supported, free and open source operating system based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux.<br>


=== Operating Systems Trend -- Why Linux?===
====UNICOS====
IBM used to focus on its own mainframe UNIX system, AIX, but has been a strong proponent for Linux for years now. When IBM started its Blue Gene series of supercomputers back in 2002 it chose Linux as its operating system.We think the following quote from Bill Pulleyblank of IBM Research nicely sums up why IBM and many other vendors have chosen Linux:
UNICOS is the name of a range of Unix-like operating system variants developed by Cray for its supercomputers. UNICOS is the successor of the Cray Operating System (COS). It provides network clustering and source code compatibility layers for some other Unixes. UNICOS was originally introduced in 1985 with the Cray-2 system and later ported to other Cray models. The original UNICOS was based on UNIX System V Release 2, and had numerous BSD features (e.g., networking and file system enhancements) added to it.
<blockquote>We chose Linux because it’s open and because we believed it could be extended to run a computer the size of Blue Gene. We saw considerable advantage in using an operating system supported by the open-source community, so that we can get their input and feedback.</blockquote>
UNICOS dominated on supercomputer in 1993 in the sense that 188 out of 500 supercomputers then were running UNICOS. Of course one of the reason is that Cray Inc. was the largest supercomputer vendor at that time(40% supercomputers were from Cray Inc.). As more and more other companies entered the market UNICOS's partition dropped with its share of hardware market. After 2000, Cray began to use linux and even Windows HPC to run on their machine and at the same time UNICOS is walking out of supercomputer.
In short, it looks like Linux has conquered the supercomputer market almost completely.
Linux outguns popular Unix operating systems like AIX and Solaris from Sun Microsystems because those systems contain features that make them great for commercial users but add a lot of system overhead that ends up limiting overall performance. One example: a "virtualization" feature in AIX lets many applications share the same processor but just hammers performance.
Linus Torvalds says that Linux has caught on in part because while typical Unix versions run on only one or two hardware architectures, Linux runs on more than 20 different hardware architectures including machines based on Intel microprocessors as well as RISC-based computers from IBM and HP. Linux is easy to get, has no licensing costs, has all the infrastructure in place, and runs on pretty much every single relevant piece of hardware out there.


==Architecture==
====Solaris====
Solaris appeared when Sun Microsystems began to ship their supercomputer to the market. Technically, Solaris is one of the most powerful operating sytems, sometimes much more secure and efficient than Linux distributions and unix systems. But Solaris disappears as Sun Microsystems leaves the market now.


Over the years, we see the changes over the architectures of supercomputers. Various of architectures were used and abandoned, shows a good trend of the developing of computer technology.  
====Windows HPC 2008====
Windows HPC Server 2008, released by Microsoft in September 2008, is the successor product to Windows Compute Cluster Server 2003. Windows HPC Server 2008 is designed for high-end applications that require high performance computing clusters. This version of the server is claimed to efficiently scale to thousands of cores. It includes features unique to HPC workloads: a new high-speed NetworkDirect RDMA, highly efficient and scalable cluster management tools, a service-oriented architecture (SOA) job scheduler, and cluster interoperability through standards such as the High Performance Computing Basic Profile (HPCBP) specification produced by the Open Grid Forum (OGF).


In the early 90s, even in the area of supercomputer, single processors were still common to see. However, another two architecture played more important roles. One is Massive parallel processing (MPP), which is a computer system with many independent arithmetic units or entire microprocessors, that run in parallel. The other is Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP), one good represent of the earliest styles of multiprocessor machine architectures. The existence of these two architectures met two of the supercomputer's key needs that makes it different from common computers, parallelism and high performance.
Here is the distribution of OS on supercomputers from 1993 to 2009:<br>
[[Image:os_system.jpg]] [[Image:os_performance.jpg]]


As time passed by, more units were available. At the early 2000s, Constellations Computing were widely used, and MPP reached its peek percentage.  
=== Operating Systems Trends -- Why Linux?===
AIX was the operating system for IBM own mainframe, but IBM is a strong proponent for Linux for years now. When IBM started its Blue Gene series of supercomputers back in 2002 it chose Linux as its operating system. The following quote from Bill Pulleyblank of IBM Research nicely sums up why IBM and many other vendors have chosen Linux:
<blockquote>We chose Linux because it’s open and because we believed it could be extended to run a computer the size of Blue Gene. We saw considerable advantage in using an operating system supported by the open-source community, so that we can get their input and feedback.</blockquote>
In short, it looks like Linux has conquered the supercomputer market almost completely. Linux outguns popular Unix operating systems like AIX and Solaris from Sun Microsystems because those systems contain features that make them great for commercial users but add a lot of system overhead that ends up limiting overall performance. Here comes one example: a "virtualization" feature in AIX lets many applications share the same processor but just hammers performance.
Linus Torvalds says that Linux has caught on in part because while typical Unix versions run on only one or two hardware architectures, Linux runs on more than 20 different hardware architectures including machines based on Intel microprocessors as well as RISC-based computers from IBM and HP. Linux is easy to get, has no licensing costs, has all the infrastructure in place, and runs on pretty much every single relevant piece of hardware out there.


==Segments==


There is also something interesting if you have a look at the segments section of Top500 data. Through all these years, industry and research are all time the two main segment shares. They two end up two balanced performance shares while industry has a much larger system share. This implies research area does own the most high-end devices which is also a main source of technology development.


[[Image:architecture_system.jpg]] [[Image:architecture_performance.jpg]]
[[Image:segments_system.jpg]] [[Image:segments_performance.jpg]]
 
===Interconnect===
 
==Application Area==
According to top500 statistics, supercomputers are used in various application areas like finance, defense and research etc.
 
==Segments==


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 22:26, 2 February 2010

A supercomputer is a computer that is most advanted computer of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation. Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and were designed primarily at Control Data Corporation (CDC), and led the market into the 1970s.

Cray then took over the supercomputer market with his new designs, holding the top spot in supercomputing for five years (1985–1990). In the 1980s a large number of smaller competitors entered the market, in parallel to the creation of the minicomputer market a decade earlier, but many of these disappeared in the mid-1990s "supercomputer market crash."

Today, supercomputers are typically one-of-a-kind custom designs produced by "traditional" companies such as Cray, IBM, and Hewlett-Packard, who purchased many of the 1980s companies to gain their experience. As of 7/2009, the Cray Jaguar is the fastest supercomputer in the world.

Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks such as problems involving quantum physics, weather forecasting, climate research, computational chemistry|molecular modeling (computing the structures and properties of chemical compounds, biological macromolecules, polymers, and crystals), physical simulations (such as simulation of airplanes in wind tunnels, simulation of the detonation of nuclear weapons, and research into nuclear fusion).

Timeline of supercomputers

This is a list of the record-holders for fastest general-purpose supercomputer in the world, and the year each one set the record. Here we just list entries after 1993. The list reflects the Top500 listing Directory page for Top500 lists. Result for each list since June 1993, and the "Peak speed" is given as the "Rmax" rating.

Year Supercomputer Peak speed
(Rmax)
Location
1993 CM-5/1024 59.7 GFLOPS DoE-Los Alamos National Laboratory; National Security Agency
Fujitsu Numerical Wind Tunnel 124.50 GFLOPS National Aerospace Laboratory, Tokyo, Japan
Paragon XP/S 140 143.40 GFLOPS DoE-Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico, United States|USA
1994 Fujitsu Numerical Wind Tunnel 170.40 GFLOPS National Aerospace Laboratory, Tokyo, Japan
1996 Hitachi SR2201/1024 220.4 GFLOPS University of Tokyo, Japan
Hitachi/Tsukuba CP-PACS/2048 368.2 GFLOPS Center for Computational Physics, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
1997 Intel ASCI Red/9152 1.338 TFLOPS Sandia National Laboratories|DoE-Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico, United States|USA
1999 Intel ASCI Red/9632 2.3796 TFLOPS
2000 IBM ASCI White 7.226 TFLOPS DoE-Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, United States|USA
2002 NEC Earth Simulator 35.86 TFLOPS Earth Simulator Center, Yokohama, Japan
2004 IBM Blue Gene|Blue Gene/L 70.72 TFLOPS DoE/IBM|IBM Rochester, Minnesota, United States|USA
2005 136.8 TFLOPS United States Department of Energy|DoE/United States National Nuclear Security Administration|U.S. National Nuclear Security Administration,
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, United States|USA
280.6 TFLOPS
2007 478.2 TFLOPS
2008 IBM |Roadrunner 1.026 PFLOPS Los Alamos National Laboratory|DoE-Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico, United States|USA
1.105 PFLOPS
2009 Jaguar 1.759 PFLOPS DoE-Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, United States|USA



Architecture

Over the years, we see the changes in supercomputer architecture. Various architectures were developed and abandoned, as computer technology progressed.

In the early '90s, single processors were still common in the supercomputer arena. However, two other architectures played more important roles. One was Massive Parallel Processing (MPP), which is a computer system with many independent arithmetic units or entire microprocessors, that run in parallel. The other is Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP), a good representative of the earliest styles of multiprocessor machine architectures. The existence of these two architectures met two of the supercomputer's key needs: parallelism and high performance.

As time passed by, more units were available. In the early 2000s, constellation computing was widely used, and MPP reached its peak percentage.

With the rise of cluster computing, the supercomputer world was transformed. In 2009, cluster computing accounted for 83.4% of the architectures in the Top 500. A cluster computer is a group of linked computers, working together closely so that in many respects they form a single computer. Compared to a single computer, clusters are deployed to improve performance and/or availability, while being more cost-effective than single computers of comparable speed or availability. Cluster computers offer a high-performance computing alternative over SMP and massively parallel computing systems. Using redundancy, cluster architectures also aim to provide reliability.

From the analysis above, we can see that supercomputers are highly related to technological change, and actively motivated by it.

Processors

Processor Architecture

Looking at the following two figures from the TOP500 Web site, we can see an obvious trend toward scalar processor architecture encroaching on vector architecture. Processor architecture has moved from basic pipeline and RISC models, to vector processors, and then to superscalar processors.

Processor Family

It is quite clear that supercomputers are evolving with the major changes in the commercial market. Time has seen processor upgrades as Intel/AMD release their new products. In 11/2009, Intel EM64T, AMD X86_64 and Power comprise 98% of all the processors used in the top 500 supercomputers.


Here are four charts comparing the evolution from 1993 to 2009. First are 1993 and 1999 distributions:

Then come 2005 and 2009:

From these four charts, you can see that processor family depends heavily on the vendors and shipping in that time period. Processor families of supercomputers reflect technological progress in the past twenty years. Newly built supercomputers will always adopt new technology. As we have said before, supercomputers are a fluid field, and today's "supercomputer" turns out to be tomorrow's "minicomputer".

Number of processors

Through advances in Moore's Law, the frequency and number of processors grows exponentially, as both multiprocessing and cluster computing becomes cost-effective. Supercomputer trends are likely to yield a collection of computers with multiprocessing that are highly interconnected via a high-speed network or switching fabric. There will be a great increase in the number of processors.

Operating Systems

Operating Systems Family

Supercomputer use various of operating systems. The operating system of s specific supercomputer depends on its vendor. Until the early-to-mid-1980s, supercomputers usually sacrificed instruction-set compatibility and code portability for performance (processing and memory access speed). For the most part, supercomputers at this time (unlike high-end mainframes) had vastly different operating systems. The Cray-1 alone had at least six different proprietary OSs largely unknown to the general computing community. In a similar manner, there existed different and incompatible vectorizing and parallelizing compilers for Fortran. This trend would have continued with the ETA-10 were it not for the initial instruction set compatibility between the Cray-1 and the Cray X-MP, and the adoption of computer systems such as Cray's Unicos, or Linux.

From the Top 500 statistics, before the 21st century almost all the OSs fell into the Unix family, while after year 2000 more and more Linux versions were adopted for supercomputers. In the 2009/11 list, 446 out of 500 supercomputers at the top were using their own distribution of Linux. When we list the OS for each of the top 20 supercomputers, the result for Linux is very impressive:
18 of the top 20 supercomputers in the world are running some form of Linux.
And if you just look at the top 10, **all** of them use Linux. Looking at the list, it becomes clear that prominent supercomputer vendors such as Cray, IBM and SGI have wholeheartedly embraced Linux. In a few cases Linux coexists with a lightweight kernel running on the compute nodes (the part of the supercomputer that performs the actual calculations), but often even these lightweight kernels are based on Linux. Cray, for example, has a modified version of Linux they call CNL (Compute Node Linux).

IBM AIX

AIX (Advanced Interactive eXecutive) is the name given to a series of proprietary operating systems sold by IBM for several of its computer system platforms, based on UNIX System V with 4.3BSD-compatible command and programming interface extensions. AIX runs on 32-bit or 64-bit IBM POWER or PowerPC CPUs (depending on version) and can address up to 32 terabytes (TB) of random access memory. The JFS2 file system—first introduced by IBM as part of AIX—allows computer files and partitions over 4 petabytes in size.

Linux Family

SuSE Linux Enterprise Server Family
SLES has been developed based on SUSE Linux. It was first released on 31 October 2000 as a version for IBM S/390 mainframe machines. In December 2000, the first enterprise client (Telia) was made public. In April 2001, the first SLES for x86 was released. SLES version 9 was released in August 2004; SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 10 was released in July 2006; SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 11 was released on March 24, 2009. All of them are supported by the major hardware vendors—IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Dell, SGI, Lenovo, and Fujitsu Siemens Computers.
Redhat Enterprise/CentOS
Redhat Enterprise along with CentOS are adopted in some vendors' platform. Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) is a Linux distribution produced by Red Hat and targeted toward the commercial market, including mainframes. CentOS is a community-supported, free and open source operating system based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux.

UNICOS

UNICOS is the name of a range of Unix-like operating system variants developed by Cray for its supercomputers. UNICOS is the successor of the Cray Operating System (COS). It provides network clustering and source code compatibility layers for some other Unixes. UNICOS was originally introduced in 1985 with the Cray-2 system and later ported to other Cray models. The original UNICOS was based on UNIX System V Release 2, and had numerous BSD features (e.g., networking and file system enhancements) added to it. UNICOS dominated on supercomputer in 1993 in the sense that 188 out of 500 supercomputers then were running UNICOS. Of course one of the reason is that Cray Inc. was the largest supercomputer vendor at that time(40% supercomputers were from Cray Inc.). As more and more other companies entered the market UNICOS's partition dropped with its share of hardware market. After 2000, Cray began to use linux and even Windows HPC to run on their machine and at the same time UNICOS is walking out of supercomputer.

Solaris

Solaris appeared when Sun Microsystems began to ship their supercomputer to the market. Technically, Solaris is one of the most powerful operating sytems, sometimes much more secure and efficient than Linux distributions and unix systems. But Solaris disappears as Sun Microsystems leaves the market now.

Windows HPC 2008

Windows HPC Server 2008, released by Microsoft in September 2008, is the successor product to Windows Compute Cluster Server 2003. Windows HPC Server 2008 is designed for high-end applications that require high performance computing clusters. This version of the server is claimed to efficiently scale to thousands of cores. It includes features unique to HPC workloads: a new high-speed NetworkDirect RDMA, highly efficient and scalable cluster management tools, a service-oriented architecture (SOA) job scheduler, and cluster interoperability through standards such as the High Performance Computing Basic Profile (HPCBP) specification produced by the Open Grid Forum (OGF).

Here is the distribution of OS on supercomputers from 1993 to 2009:

Operating Systems Trends -- Why Linux?

AIX was the operating system for IBM own mainframe, but IBM is a strong proponent for Linux for years now. When IBM started its Blue Gene series of supercomputers back in 2002 it chose Linux as its operating system. The following quote from Bill Pulleyblank of IBM Research nicely sums up why IBM and many other vendors have chosen Linux:

We chose Linux because it’s open and because we believed it could be extended to run a computer the size of Blue Gene. We saw considerable advantage in using an operating system supported by the open-source community, so that we can get their input and feedback.

In short, it looks like Linux has conquered the supercomputer market almost completely. Linux outguns popular Unix operating systems like AIX and Solaris from Sun Microsystems because those systems contain features that make them great for commercial users but add a lot of system overhead that ends up limiting overall performance. Here comes one example: a "virtualization" feature in AIX lets many applications share the same processor but just hammers performance. Linus Torvalds says that Linux has caught on in part because while typical Unix versions run on only one or two hardware architectures, Linux runs on more than 20 different hardware architectures including machines based on Intel microprocessors as well as RISC-based computers from IBM and HP. Linux is easy to get, has no licensing costs, has all the infrastructure in place, and runs on pretty much every single relevant piece of hardware out there.

Segments

There is also something interesting if you have a look at the segments section of Top500 data. Through all these years, industry and research are all time the two main segment shares. They two end up two balanced performance shares while industry has a much larger system share. This implies research area does own the most high-end devices which is also a main source of technology development.

References

  1. Supercomputer
  2. Current Trend of Supercomputer Architecture
  3. TOP500 Supercomputers
  4. The triumph of Linux as a supercomputer OS
  5. Massive_Parallel_Processing
  6. Cluster Computing